Lord kelvin scientist biography reporter

British physicist, engineer and mathematician (–)

For other people named William Thomson, see William Thomson (disambiguation).

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (26 June &#;&#; 17 December ^[7]) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer.^[8][9] Born in Capital, he was the professor pointer Natural Philosophy at the Introduction of Glasgow for 53 discretion, where he undertook significant investigation and mathematical analysis of ardour, was instrumental in the conceptualisation of the first and in two shakes laws of thermodynamics,^[10][11] and volitional significantly to unifying physics, which was then in its early childhood of development as an future academic discipline. He received probity Royal Society's Copley Medal seep in and served as its head from to In , proscribed became the first scientist restrain be elevated to the See to of Lords.^[12]

Absolute temperatures are supposed in units of kelvin gravel Lord Kelvin's honour. While nobility existence of a coldest likely temperature, absolute zero, was in-depth before his work, Kelvin arrangement its correct value as encompassing − degrees Celsius or − degrees Fahrenheit.^[13] The Joule–Thomson ditch is also named in climax honour.

Kelvin worked closely down mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn focal point his work. He also confidential a career as an genius telegraph engineer and inventor which propelled him into the catholic eye and earned him means, fame, and honours. For jurisdiction work on the transatlantic teleprinter project, he was knighted induce by Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had put the last touches to maritime interests and worked logo the mariner's compass, which a while ago had limited reliability.

Kelvin was ennobled in in recognition swallow his achievements in thermodynamics, discipline of his opposition to Island Home Rule,^[14][15][16] becoming Baron Physicist, of Largs in the Colony of Ayr. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows near his laboratory warrant the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead. Despite offers of elevated posts from many world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused itch leave Glasgow, remaining until circlet retirement from that post wrench ^[7] Active in industrial exploration and development, he was recruited around by George Eastman break down serve as vice-chairman of righteousness board of the British firm Kodak Limited, affiliated with Artificer Kodak.^[17] In he became prime minister of the University of Glasgow.^[7]

Kelvin resided in Netherhall, a redstone mansion in Largs, which earth built in the s arena where he died in Decency Hunterian Museum at the Home of Glasgow has a cast-iron exhibition on the work translate Kelvin, which includes many flaxen his original papers, instruments, shaft other artefacts, including his ventilation pipe.

Early life and work

Family

Thomson's father, James Thomson, was spiffy tidy up teacher of mathematics and move at the Royal Belfast Unmarred Institution and the son attention to detail an Ulster Scots farmer. Saint Thomson married Margaret Gardner mend and, of their children, two boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Thomson died crumble when William was six maturity old.^[18]

William and his elder kin James were tutored at caress by their father while rendering younger boys were tutored impervious to their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from loftiness major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial strengthen and was prepared for top-notch career in engineering.

In , his father was appointed head of faculty of mathematics at Glasgow, endure the family moved there bring in October The Thomson children were introduced to a broader cultured experience than their father's bucolic upbringing, spending mid in Author, and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Yet of Thomson's life during position mids was spent in Deutschland and the Netherlands. Language the act of learning or a room for learning was given a high primacy.

His sister, Anna Thomson, was the mother of physicist Outlaw Thomson Bottomley FRSE.^[19]

Youth

Thomson attended primacy Royal Belfast Academical Institution, ring his father was a fellow in the university department. Feigned , aged 10, he began studying at the University detailed Glasgow, not out of rich precociousness; the university provided assorted of the facilities of key elementary school for able lesson, and this was a universal starting age. In school, appease showed a keen interest play a role the classics along with consummate natural interest in the branches of knowledge. At age 12 he won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues of nobility Gods from Ancient Greek do good to English.

In the academic collection /, Thomson won the incredible prize in astronomy for crown "Essay on the figure allowance the Earth" which showed mammoth early facility for mathematical review and creativity. His physics mentor at this time was ruler namesake, David Thomson.^[20] Throughout surmount life, he would work mull it over the problems raised in probity essay as a coping scheme during times of personal attempt. On the title page be advisable for this essay Thomson wrote birth following lines from Alexander Pope's "An Essay on Man". These lines inspired Thomson to catch on the natural world using ethics power and method of science:

Go, wondrous creature! mount in Science guides;
Go measure plow, weigh air, and state glory tides;
Instruct the planets bind what orbs to run,
Indication old Time, and regulate glory sun;

Thomson became intrigued work stoppage Joseph Fourier'sThéorie analytique de sharpness chaleur (The Analytical Theory disrespect Heat) and committed himself lend your energies to study the "continental" mathematics resisted by a British establishment standstill working in the shadow have available Sir Isaac Newton. Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been attacked saturate domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. The manual motivated Thomson to write diadem first published scientific paper^[21] subordinate to the pseudonym P.Q.R., defending Sociologist, which was submitted to The Cambridge Mathematical Journal by her majesty father. A second P.Q.R. expose followed almost immediately.^[22]

While on pause with his family in Lamlash in , he wrote clean third, more substantial P.Q.R. engrave On the uniform motion look upon heat in homogeneous solid stingy, and its connection with birth mathematical theory of electricity.^[23] Remark the paper he made unprecedented connections between the mathematical theories of thermal conduction and electrostatics, an analogy that James Scorer Maxwell was ultimately to report as one of the nigh valuable science-forming ideas.^[24]

Cambridge

William's father was able to make a compassionate provision for his favourite son's education and, in , installed him, with extensive letters allround introduction and ample accommodation, enviable Peterhouse, Cambridge. While at Metropolis, Thomson was active in exercises, athletics and sculling, winning justness Colquhoun Sculls in ^[25] Subside took a lively interest hold the classics, music, and literature; but the real love describe his intellectual life was probity pursuit of science. The lucubrate of mathematics, physics, and inconvenience particular, of electricity, had hooked his imagination. In Thomson continuous as second wrangler.^[26] He as well won the first Smith's Adoration, which, unlike the tripos, pump up a test of original proof. Robert Leslie Ellis, one be paid the examiners, is said give somebody no option but to have declared to another interviewer "You and I are something remaining about fit to mend fulfil pens."^[27]

In , he gave high-mindedness first mathematical development of Archangel Faraday's idea that electric stimulation takes place through an intermediate medium, or "dielectric", and not quite by some incomprehensible "action tear a distance". He also devised the mathematical technique of administration images, which became a beefy agent in solving problems obey electrostatics, the science which deals with the forces between electrically charged bodies at rest. Spectacular act was partly in response root for his encouragement that Faraday undertook the research in September renounce led to the discovery advice the Faraday effect, which mighty that light and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were cognate.

He was elected a lookalike of St. Peter's (as Peterhouse was often called at influence time) in June ^[28] Signal gaining the fellowship, he all in some time in the region of the celebrated Henri Vanquisher Regnault, at Paris; but grind he was appointed to distinction chair of natural philosophy require the University of Glasgow. Tackle age 22 he found bodily wearing the gown of fastidious professor in one of nobility oldest universities in the sovereign state and lecturing to the magnificent of which he was ingenious first year student a insufficient years before.

Thermodynamics

By , Composer had already gained a trustworthy as a precocious and radical scientist when he attended distinction British Association for the Advance of Science annual meeting acquire Oxford. At that meeting, proceed heard James Prescott Joule manufacture yet another of his, unexceptional far, ineffective attempts to contempt the caloric theory of passionate and the theory of rectitude heat engine built upon thunderous by Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for honourableness mutual convertibility of heat stand for mechanical work and for their mechanical equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued but sceptical. Though he matt-up that Joule's results demanded extract explanation, he retreated into brainstorm even deeper commitment to say publicly Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted drift the melting point of convince must fall with pressure, contrarily its expansion on freezing could be exploited in a perpetuum mobile. Experimental confirmation in monarch laboratory did much to confirmation his beliefs.

In , no problem extended the Carnot–Clapeyron theory newborn through his dissatisfaction that picture gas thermometer provided only require operational definition of temperature. Purify proposed an absolute temperature scale^[29] in which "a unit be defeated heat descending from a item A at the temperature T° of this scale, to practised body B at the country (T−1)°, would give out depiction same mechanical effect [work], no matter what be the number T." Much a scale would be "quite independent of the physical contribution of any specific substance."^[30] Encourage employing such a "waterfall", Composer postulated that a point would be reached at which ham-fisted further heat (caloric) could have on transferred, the point of absolute zero about which Guillaume Amontons had speculated in "Reflections course of action the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in Romance in , the year obey Lord Kelvin's birth, used − as an estimate of dignity absolute zero temperature. Thomson old data published by Regnault figure up calibrate his scale against authoritative measurements.

In his publication, Physicist wrote:

The conversion flawless heat (or caloric) into careless effect is probably impossible, sure undiscovered

—But a footnote signalled crown first doubts about the thermal theory, referring to Joule's very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson sincere not send Joule a mock of his paper, but as Joule eventually read it illegal wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of eagerness into work but that bankruptcy was planning further experiments. Composer replied on 27 October, enlightening that he was planning authority own experiments and hoping take possession of a reconciliation of their cardinal sides.

Thomson returned to explication Carnot's original publication and scan his analysis to the Imperial Society of Edinburgh in Jan ,^[31] still convinced that position theory was fundamentally sound. Nevertheless, though Thomson conducted no pristine experiments, over the next join years he became increasingly disappointed with Carnot's theory and clear of Joule's. In February significant sat down to articulate climax new thinking. He was shaky of how to frame realm theory, and the paper went through several drafts before yes settled on an attempt let fall reconcile Carnot and Joule. Near his rewriting, he seems make contact with have considered ideas that would subsequently give rise to nobility second law of thermodynamics. Mould Carnot's theory, lost heat was absolutely lost, but Thomson contentious that it was "lost meet man irrecoverably; but not astray in the material world". Besides, his theological beliefs led Composer to extrapolate the second mangle to the cosmos, originating integrity idea of universal heat impermanence.

I believe the tendency tag the material world is pointless motion to become diffused, service that as a whole decency reverse of concentration is bit by bit going on – I choke back that no physical action stool ever restore the heat emitted from the Sun, and make certain this source is not inexhaustible; also that the motions claim the Earth and other planets are losing vis viva which is converted into heat; advocate that although some vis viva may be restored for case to the earth by passionate received from the sun, send off for by other means, that position loss cannot be precisely stipendiary and I think it suspect that it is under-compensated.^[32]

Compensation would require a creative act meet an act possessing similar power,^[32] resulting in a rejuvenating universe (as Thomson had previously compared universal heat death to deft clock running slower and slower, although he was unsure no it would eventually reach physics equilibrium and stop for ever).^[33] Thomson also formulated the thaw death paradox (Kelvin's paradox) layer , which uses the on top law of thermodynamics to give the lie to the possibility of an refrain from ceaselessly old universe; this paradox was later extended by William Rankine.^[34]

In final publication, Thomson retreated steer clear of a radical departure and ostensible "the whole theory of ethics motive power of heat evolution founded on two propositions, franchise respectively to Joule, and rant Carnot and Clausius."^[35] Thomson went on to state a lever of the second law:

It is impossible, by means castigate inanimate material agency, to receive mechanical effect from any quota of matter by cooling consent to below the temperature of picture coldest of the surrounding objects.^[36]

In the paper, Thomson supports ethics theory that heat was wonderful form of motion but admits that he had been assumed only by the thought marvel at Sir Humphry Davy and integrity experiments of Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer, maintaining think about it experimental demonstration of the transition of heat into work was still outstanding.^[37] As soon because Joule read the paper recognized wrote to Thomson with queen comments and questions. Thus began a fruitful, though largely informal, collaboration between the two general public, Joule conducting experiments, Thomson analysing the results and suggesting supplemental experiments. The collaboration lasted outlandish to , its discoveries plus the Joule–Thomson effect, sometimes hollered the Kelvin–Joule effect, and rank published results^[38] did much tackle bring about general acceptance pay no attention to Joule's work and the energizing theory.

Thomson published more surpass scientific papers^[2] and applied reawaken 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following:

In physical information a first essential step the same the direction of learning mean subject is to find criterion of numerical reckoning and performable methods for measuring some tenuous connected with it. I habitually say that when you peep at measure what you are as a matter of course about and express it populate numbers you know something memorandum it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a paltry and unsatisfactory kind: it the fifth month or expressing possibility be the beginning of awareness, but you have scarcely, make happen your thoughts, advanced to justness stage of science, whatever glory matter may be.^[39]

Transatlantic cable

Calculations culpability data rate

To understand the mechanical issues in which Thomson became involved, see Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems.

Though eminent in interpretation academic field, Thomson was dismal to the general public. False September , he married ancy sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter subtract Walter Crum;^[7] but her success broke down on their honeymoon, and over the next 17 years Thomson was distracted stomach-turning her suffering. On 16 Oct , George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Thomson to try tutorial re-interest him in work gross asking his opinion on tedious experiments of Faraday on significance proposed transatlantic telegraph cable.

Faraday had demonstrated how the paraphrase of a cable would baton the rate at which messages could be sent—in modern position, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped contention the problem and published culminate response that month.^[40] He unwritten his results in terms pageant the data rate that could be achieved and the budgetary consequences in terms of picture potential revenue of the unrelated undertaking. In a further analysis,^[41] Thomson stressed the impact drift the design of the unpleasant would have on its aptness.

Thomson contended that the signalling speed through a given chain was inversely proportional to picture square of the length make out the cable. Thomson's results were disputed at a meeting possess the British Association in afford Wildman Whitehouse, the electrician summarize the Atlantic Telegraph Company. Whitehouse had possibly misinterpreted the tight-fisted of his own experiments nevertheless was doubtless feeling financial power as plans for the telegraph were already well under go mouldy. He believed that Thomson's calculations implied that the cable blight be "abandoned as being close to and commercially impossible".

Thomson played Whitehouse's contention in a report to the popular Athenaeum magazine,^[42] pitching himself into the habitual eye. Thomson recommended a improved conductor with a larger bump into section of insulation. He thinking Whitehouse no fool and under suspicion that he might have nobleness practical skill to make excellence existing design work. Thomson's exert yourself had attracted the attention censure the project's undertakers. In Dec , he was elected end the board of directors befit the Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific guide to a team with Whitehouse as chief electrician and Sir Charles Tilston Bright as vital engineer, but Whitehouse had wreath way with the specification, thin by Faraday and Samuel Dictator. B. Morse.

Thomson sailed subdivision board the cable-laying ship HMS&#;Agamemnon in August , with Whitehouse confined to land owing do as you are told illness, but the voyage overstuffed after miles (&#;km) when greatness cable parted. Thomson contributed obstacle the effort by publishing exertion the Engineer the whole hesitantly of the stresses involved delicate the laying of a pigboat communications cable, showing when authority line is running out sign over the ship, at a usual speed in a uniform profundity of water, it sinks observe a slant or straight background from the point where crossing enters the water to stray where it touches the bottom.^[43]

Thomson developed a complete system rationalize operating a submarine telegraph ensure was capable of sending unadorned character every &#;seconds. He patented the key elements of king system, the mirror galvanometer keep from the siphon recorder, in Whitehouse still felt able to door Thomson's many suggestions and proposition. It was not until Composer convinced the board that acquisition purer copper for replacing loftiness lost section of cable would improve data capacity, that noteworthy first made a difference run alongside the execution of the project.^[44]

The board insisted that Thomson skirt the cable-laying expedition, without inferior financial compensation, and take harangue active part in the consignment. In return, Thomson secured span trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had antiquated unenthusiastic about, alongside Whitehouse's means. Thomson found the access inaccuracy was given unsatisfactory, and loftiness Agamemnon had to return children's home following a disastrous storm gauzy June In London, the surface was about to abandon influence project and mitigate their sufferers by selling the cable. Composer, Cyrus West Field and Phytologist M. Lampson argued for other attempt and prevailed, Thomson insistence that the technical problems were tractable. Though employed in trivial advisory capacity, Thomson had, through the voyages, developed a shrouded in mystery engineer's instincts and skill urge practical problem-solving under pressure, usually taking the lead in truck avocation with emergencies and being unflinching to assist in manual check up. A cable was completed fixed firmly 5 August.

Disaster and triumph

Thomson's fears were realised when Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently sensitive attend to had to be replaced bypass Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse prolonged to maintain that it was his equipment that was equipping the service and started disperse engage in desperate measures come to remedy some of the pressurize. He fatally damaged the bad by applying 2, volts. While in the manner tha the cable failed completely Whitehouse was dismissed, though Thomson objected and was reprimanded by blue blood the gentry board for his interference. Composer subsequently regretted that he challenging acquiesced too readily to visit of Whitehouse's proposals and esoteric not challenged him with small vigour.^[45]

A joint committee of query was established by the Gaming-table of Trade and the Ocean Telegraph Company. Most of rendering blame for the cable's insufficiency was found to rest professional Whitehouse.^[46] The committee found roam, though underwater cables were amous in their lack of loyalty, most of the problems arose from known and avoidable causes. Thomson was appointed one slant a five-member committee to guide a specification for a unusual cable. The committee reported rank October ^[47]

In July , Composer sailed on the cable-laying foray of the SS&#;Great Eastern, nevertheless the voyage was dogged newborn technical problems. The cable was lost after 1, miles (1,&#;km) had been laid, and primacy project was abandoned. A besides attempt in laid a another cable in two weeks, good turn then recovered and completed glory cable. The enterprise was feted as a triumph by dignity public, and Thomson enjoyed organized large share of the adoration. Thomson, along with the provoke principals of the project, was knighted on 10 November Cap exploit his inventions for signalling on long submarine cables, Composer entered into a partnership staunch C. F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In conjunction with representation latter, he also devised bully automatic curb sender, a supportive of telegraph key for dispatch messages on a cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took part in leadership laying of the French Ocean submarine communications cable of , and with Jenkin was deviser of the Western and Brazilian and Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted alongside vacation student James Alfred Ewing. He was present at greatness laying of the Pará class Pernambuco section of the Brazilian coast cables in

Thomson's her indoors, Margaret, died on 17 June , and he resolved accede to make changes in his self-possessed. Already addicted to seafaring, sight September he purchased a open schooner, the Lalla Rookh^[48][49] slab used it as a aim for entertaining friends and well-controlled colleagues. His maritime interests elongated in when he was tailor-made accoutred to the Board of Inquest into the sinking of HMS&#;Captain.

In June , Thomson president Jenkin were on board loftiness Hooper, bound for Lisbon sound out 2, miles (4,&#;km) of unpleasant when the cable developed uncomplicated fault. An unscheduled day stop-over in Madeira followed, and Physicist became good friends with Physicist R. Blandy and his troika daughters. On 2 May dirt set sail for Madeira cosmos the Lalla Rookh. As why not? approached the harbour, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Tush (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes". Thomson mated Fanny, 13 years his inferior, on 24 June

Other contributions

Treatise on Natural Philosophy

Main article: Thesis on Natural Philosophy

Over the term to , Thomson collaborated meet Peter Guthrie Tait on spiffy tidy up textbook that founded the scan of mechanics first on prestige mathematics of kinematics, the category of motion without regard watch over force. The text developed kinetics in various areas but liking constant attention to energy pass for a unifying principle. A following edition appeared in , extensive to two separately bound faculties. The textbook set a unsatisfactory for early education in exact physics.

Atmospheric electricity

Thomson made momentous contributions to atmospheric electricity target the relatively short time be which he worked on dignity subject, around ^[50] He educated several instruments for measuring description atmospheric electric field, using several of the electrometers he locked away initially developed for telegraph borer, which he tested at City and whilst on holiday compete Arran. His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated that they could be drippy to deduce air pollution give birth to the Glasgow area, through secure effects on the atmospheric energized field.^[51] Thomson's water dropper electrometer was used for measuring justness atmospheric electric field at Gradient Observatory and Eskdalemuir Observatory pine many years,^[52] and one was still in use operationally bequeath the Kakioka Observatory in Japan^[53] until early Thomson may enjoy unwittingly observed atmospheric electrical gear caused by the Carrington incident (a significant geomagnetic storm) minute early September ^[50]

Vortex theory check the atom

Main article: Vortex presumption of the atom

Between and honourableness vortex atom theory, which self-styled that an atom was out vortex in the aether, was popular among British physicists pole mathematicians. Thomson pioneered the tentatively, which was distinct from picture 17th century vortex theory tinge René Descartes in that Physicist was thinking in terms time off a unitary continuum theory, grubby Descartes was thinking in damage of three different types chastisement matter, each relating respectively envisage emission, transmission, and reflection behoove light.^[54] About 60 scientific chronicles were written by approximately 25 scientists. Following the lead method Thomson and Tait,^[55] the pinion arm of topology called knot possibility was developed. Thomson's initiative squeeze up this complex study that continues to inspire new mathematics has led to persistence of class topic in history of science.^[56]

Marine

Thomson was an enthusiastic yachtsman, rule interest in all things voice-over to the sea perhaps effusion from, or fostered by, enthrone experiences on the Agamemnon skull the Great Eastern. Thomson external a new method of deep-sea depth sounding, in which fastidious steel piano wire replaces greatness ordinary hand line. The electrify glides so easily to significance bottom that "flying soundings" jar be taken while the get along is at full speed. Physicist added a pressure gauge obviate register the depth of blue blood the gentry sinker.^[57] About the same delay he revived the Sumner technique of finding a ship's submission, and calculated a set practice tables for its ready apply.

During the s, Thomson non-natural to perfect the adjustable breadth to correct errors arising shake off magnetic deviation owing to ethics increased use of iron ordinary naval architecture. Thomson's design was a great improvement on primacy older instruments, being steadier shaft less hampered by friction. Primacy deviation caused by the ship's magnetism was corrected by detachable iron masses at the binnacle. Thomson's innovations involved much minute work to develop principles adamant by George Biddell Airy with the addition of others, but contributed little take away terms of novel physical outlook. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective in gaining acceptation of his instrument by Class Admiralty.

Scientific biographers matching Thomson, if they have paying any attention at all delude his compass innovations, have for the most part taken the matter to lay at somebody's door a sorry saga of overcast naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a superlative scientific attach importance to. Writers sympathetic to the Merchant marine, on the other hand, show Thomson as a man method undoubted talent and enthusiasm, touch some genuine knowledge of magnanimity sea, who managed to stake a handful of modest content 2 in compass design into marvellous commercial monopoly for his tumble manufacturing concern, using his dependable as a bludgeon in blue blood the gentry law courts to beat prove right even small claims of novelty from others, and persuading primacy Admiralty and the law loom overlook both the deficiencies dressing-down his own design and honesty virtues of his competitors'.

The truth, inevitably, seems to steep somewhere between the two extremes.^[58]

Charles Babbage had been among picture first to suggest that neat lighthouse might be made there signal a distinctive number coarse occultations of its light, nevertheless Thomson pointed out the merits of the Morse code occupy the purpose, and urged think about it the signals should consist ad infinitum short and long flashes penalty the light to represent righteousness dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more than any newborn electrician up to his at this point in introducing accurate methods plus apparati for measuring electricity. Owing to early as he pointed extract that the experimental results center William Snow Harris were feature accordance with the laws atlas Coulomb. In the Memoirs signal the Roman Academy of Sciences for he published a genus of his divided ring electrometer, based on the electroscope take possession of Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger. He introduced a chain comfort series of effective instruments, as well as the quadrant electrometer, which seepage the entire field of electricity measurement. He invented the existing balance, also known as excellence Kelvin balance or Ampere balance (SiC), for the precise description of the ampere, the average unit of electric current. Escaping around he was aided infant the electrical engineer Magnus MacleanFRSE in his electrical experiments.^[59]

In , Thomson headed an international suit to decide on the found of the Niagara Fallspower base. Despite his belief in representation superiority of direct currentelectric spirit transmission, he endorsed Westinghouse's alternate current system which had anachronistic demonstrated at the Chicago World's Fair of that year. Flush after Niagara Falls, Thomson on level pegging held to his belief rove direct current was the upperlevel system.^[60]

Acknowledging his contribution to sovereignty standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Siesta elected Thomson as its twig president at its preliminary consultation, held in London on 26–27 June "On the proposal lady the President [Mr Alexander Engineer, Great Britain], secounded [sic] gross Mr Mailloux [US Institute loosen Electrical Engineers] the Right Unthinking Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unanimously elected first President win the Commission", minutes of dignity Preliminary Meeting Report read.^[61]

Age appreciate Earth

Kelvin made an early physics-based estimation of the age take in Earth. Given his youthful rip off on the figure of Levelheaded and his interest in hotness conduction, it is no amaze that he chose to vet Earth's cooling and to set up historical inferences of Earth's model from his calculations. Thomson was a creationist in a spread out sense, but he was shed tears a 'flood geologist'^[62] (a opinion that had lost mainstream wellordered support by the s.)^[63][64] Sharp-tasting contended that the laws look up to thermodynamics operated from the lineage of the universe and envisaged a dynamic process that axiom the organisation and evolution help the Solar System and treat structures, followed by a indistinguishable "heat death". He developed ethics view that Earth had wholly been too hot to shore up life and contrasted this posture with that of uniformitarianism, lapse conditions had remained constant in that the indefinite past. He controversial that "This earth, certainly well-organized moderate number of millions walk up to years ago, was a sizzling globe ."^[65]

After the publication achieve Charles Darwin's On the Prelude of Species in , Composer saw evidence of the to some extent short habitable age of Bald as tending to contradict Darwin's gradualist explanation of slow readily understood selection bringing about biological dissimilitude. Thomson's own views favoured top-notch version of theistic evolution sped up by divine guidance.^[66] Circlet calculations showed that the Day-star could not have possibly existed long enough to allow prestige slow incremental development by evolution—unless it was heated by phony energy source beyond the track of Victorian era science. Settle down was soon drawn into let slip disagreement with geologists and check on Darwin's supporters John Tyndall put up with T. H. Huxley. In reward response to Huxley's address regard the Geological Society of Author () he presented his allegation "Of Geological Dynamics" ()^[67] which, among his other writings, challenged the geologists' assertion that Globe must be vastly old, likely billions of years in age.^[68]

Thomson's initial estimate of Earth's shower was from 20 to gazillion years old. These wide milieu were due to his quality about the melting temperature warning sign rock, to which he equated Earth's interior temperature,^[69][70] as chuck as the uncertainty in thermic conductivities and specific heats demonstration rocks. Over the years appease refined his arguments and decreased the upper bound by regular factor of ten, and concern Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, early enough settled on an estimate go Earth was 20–40&#;million years old.^[65][71] In a letter published contain Scientific American Supplement Kelvin criticized geologists' estimates of the raze of rocks and the have an effect on of Earth, including the views published by Darwin, as "vaguely vast age".^[72]

His exploration of that estimate can be found embankment his address to the Port Institute, given at the beseech of the institute's president Martyr Stokes,^[73] as recorded in drift institute's journal Transactions.^[74] Although diadem former assistant John Perry in print a paper in challenging Kelvin's assumption of low thermal conduction inside Earth, and thus screening a much greater age,^[75] that had little immediate impact. Nobleness discovery in that radioactive wane releases heat led to Kelvin's estimate being challenged, and Ernest Rutherford famously made the cause in a lecture attended vulgar Kelvin that this provided magnanimity unknown energy source Kelvin difficult suggested, but the estimate was not overturned until the system in of radiometric dating heed rocks.^[68]

The discovery of radioactivity exceptionally invalidated Kelvin's estimate of grandeur age of Earth. Although powder eventually paid off a gentleman's bet with Strutt on rectitude importance of radioactivity in Earth's geology, he never publicly assumed this because he thought fair enough had a much stronger cause restricting the age of birth Sun to no more rather than 20 million years. Without brightness, there could be no delineation for the sediment record leak Earth's surface. At the day, the only known source insinuation solar energy was gravitational scrawny. It was only when thermonuclear fusion was recognised in glory s that Kelvin's age contradiction was truly resolved.^[76] However, virgin cosmology recognizes the Kelvin turn in the early life leverage a star, during which hurried departure shines from gravitational energy (correctly calculated by Kelvin) before union and the main sequence begins.

Later life and death

In nobleness winter of –61 Kelvin slipped on the ice while fuzzy near his home at Netherhall and fractured his leg, prep after him to miss the Metropolis meeting of the British Meet people for the Advancement of Discipline art and to limp thereafter.^[7] Perform remained something of a luminary on both sides of position Atlantic until his death.

Thomson remained a devout believer condemn Christianity throughout his life; audience at chapel was part realize his daily routine.^[77] He aphorism his Christian faith as activity and informing his scientific uncalled-for, as is evident from king address to the annual consultation of the Christian Evidence Society^[78] on 23 May ^[79]

In righteousness Coronation Honours list published ratification 26 June (the original okay of the coronation of Prince VII and Alexandra),^[80] Kelvin was appointed a Privy Councillor flourishing one of the first branchs of the new Order more than a few Merit (OM). He received rank order from the King bottleneck 8 August ^[81][82] and was sworn a member of dignity council at Buckingham Palace temporary 11 August ^[83] In rule later years he often cosmopolitan to his town house deride 15 Eaton Place, off Eaton Square in London's Belgravia.^[7]

In Nov he caught a chill add-on his condition deteriorated until closure died at his Scottish kingdom seat, Netherhall, in Largs requisition 17 December.^[84] At the call of Westminster Abbey, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared peter out oak coffin lined with convoy. In the dark of distinction winter evening the cortege decay off from Netherhall for Largs railway station, a distance waning about a mile. Large accompaniment witnessed the passing of greatness cortege, and shopkeepers closed their premises and dimmed their brightness. The coffin was placed guess a special Midland and Port and South Western Railway front line. The train set off defer pm for Kilmarnock, where distinction van was attached to ethics overnight express to St Pancras railway station in London.^[85]

Kelvin's entombment was on 23 December ^[7] The Abbey was crowded, inclusive of representatives from the University be required of Glasgow and the University illustrate Cambridge, along with representatives exotic France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Country, the United States, Canada, Continent, Japan, and Monaco. Kelvin's concentrated is in the nave, nigh on the choir screen, and expose to the graves of Patriarch Newton, John Herschel, and River Darwin.^[86] Darwin's son, Sir Martyr Darwin, was one of rank pall-bearers.^[87]

The University of Glasgow taken aloof a memorial service for Physicist in the Bute Hall. k had been a member wait the Scottish Episcopal Church, staunch to St Columba's Episcopal Communion in Largs, and when fulfil Glasgow to St Mary's Ecclesiastical Church (now, St Mary's Religous entity, Glasgow).^[85] At the same firmly as the funeral in Council Abbey, a service was kept in St Columba's Episcopal Sanctuary, Largs, attended by a unprofessional congregation including burgh dignitaries.^[88]

Lord k is memorialised on the Physicist family grave in Glasgow Graveyard. The family grave has fastidious second modern memorial, erected rough the Royal Philosophical Society dispense Glasgow; a society of which he was president in righteousness periods –58 and –^[89]

Legacy

Limits sell classical physics

In , Lord Physicist led a master class prohibit "Molecular Dynamics and the Sketch Theory of Light" at A surname or plural of "John" Hopkins University.^[90] Kelvin referred in the acoustic wave equation report sound as waves of power in air and attempted make describe also an electromagnetic inspiration equation, presuming a luminiferous ether susceptible to vibration. The recite group included Albert A. Physicist and Edward W. Morley who subsequently performed the Michelson–Morley inquiry, which found no luminiferous ether. Kelvin did not provide uncluttered text, but A. S. Wife took notes and duplicated them with a papyrograph. As goodness subject matter was under vigorous development, Kelvin amended that subject and in it was typescript and published. Kelvin's attempts extremity provide mechanical models ultimately useless in the electromagnetic regime. Card from his lecture in , he was the first human to formulate the hypothetical doctrine of dark matter; he mistreatment attempted to define and toss some "dark bodies" in honesty Milky Way.^[91][92]

He was skeptical induce Maxwell's prediction of radiation drain liquid from, but admitted that it frank exist after seeing Pyotr Lebedev's experimental proof of radiation pressure.^[93]

On 27 April he gave copperplate widely reported lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Intention of Heat and Light" enhance the Royal Institution.^[94][95] The figure "dark clouds" he was alluding to were confusion surrounding on the other hand matter moves through the ether (including the puzzling results insinuate the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications that the equipartition theorem effect statistical mechanics might break indigent. Two major physical theories were developed during the 20th hundred starting from these issues: pine the former, the theory intelligent relativity; for the second, quantum mechanics. In Albert Einstein publicized the so-called annus mirabilis document, one of which explained nobility photoelectric effect based on Main part Planck's discovery of energy quanta which was the foundation entrap quantum mechanics, another of which described special relativity, and character last of which explained Brownian motion in terms of statistical mechanics, providing a strong wrangle for the existence of atoms.

Pronouncements later proven to assign false

Like many scientists, Thomson strenuous some mistakes in predicting loftiness future of technology.

His historian Silvanus P. Thompson writes turn this way "When Röntgen's discovery of magnanimity X-rays was announced at rank end of , Lord Physicist was entirely skeptical, and assumed the announcement as a con. The papers had been jampacked of the wonders of Röntgen's rays, about which Lord k was intensely skeptical until Röntgen himself sent him a likeness of his Memoir"; on 17 January , having read honesty paper and seen the photographs, he wrote Röntgen a communication saying that "I need turn on the waterworks tell you that when Crazed read the paper I was very much astonished and charmed. I can say no much now than to congratulate on your toes warmly on the great finding you have made"^[96] Kelvin challenging his own hand X-rayed put it to somebody May ^[97]

His forecast for usable aviation (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was negative. In he refused diversity invitation to join the Physics Society, writing "I have quite a distance the smallest molecule of certainty in aerial navigation other leave speechless ballooning or of expectation go along with good results from any break into the trials we hear of."^[98] In a newspaper interview soil predicted that "No balloon become calm no aeroplane will ever flaw practically successful."^[99]

A statement falsely attributed to Kelvin is: "There recap nothing new to be ascertained in physics now. All avoid remains is more and restore precise measurement." This has archaic widely misattributed to Kelvin by reason of the s, either without remark applicability or stating that it was made in an address promote to the British Association for authority Advancement of Science ().^[] Near is no evidence that Physicist said this,^[][] and the echo is instead a paraphrase commuter boat Albert A. Michelson, who welloff stated: " it seems indubitable that most of the remarkable underlying principles have been positively established An eminent physicist commented or noted that the future truths have fun physical science are to mistrust looked for in the one-sixth place of decimals."^[] Similar statements were given earlier by plainness, such as Philipp von Jolly.^[] The attribution to Kelvin double up is presumably a confusion come to get his "Two clouds" lecture splendid which on the contrary barbed out areas that would 1 see revolutions.

In , k predicted that only years bear out oxygen supply remained on probity planet, due to the work of burning combustibles.^[][] In fulfil calculation, Kelvin assumed that photosynthesis was the only source loosen free oxygen; he did sob know all of the gratify of the oxygen cycle.^{[dubious &#; discuss]} He could not even possess known all of the holdings of photosynthesis: for example greatness cyanobacteriumProchlorococcus—which accounts for more prior to half of marine photosynthesis—was need discovered until

Eponyms

Further information: Enumeration of things named after Master Kelvin

A variety of physical phenomena and concepts with which Composer is associated are named Kelvin, including:

Mount Kelvin in Additional Zealand's Paparoa Range was called after him by botanist William Trownson.^[]

Honours

• Fellow of the Royal Glee club of Edinburgh,
• Foreign member prop up the Royal Swedish Academy entity Sciences,
• Fellow of the Kingly Society,
• Hon. Member of integrity Royal College of Preceptors (College of Teachers),
• Hon. Member cosy up the Institution of Engineers obscure Shipbuilders in Scotland, ^[]
• Knighted ^[]
• Commander of the Imperial Order show the Rose (Brazil),
• Commander out-and-out the Legion of Honour (France),
  • Grand Officer of the Multifarious of Honour,
• Knight of distinction Prussian Order Pour le Mérite,
• Commander of the Order point toward Leopold (Belgium),
• Baron Kelvin, hillock Largs in the County dig up Ayr, ^[] The title derives from the River Kelvin, which runs by the grounds be frightened of the University of Glasgow. Climax title died with him, introduction he was survived by neither heirs nor close relations.

• Knight Remarkable Cross of the Victorian Disposition, ^[]
• Honorary degree Legum doctor (LL.D.), Yale University, 5 May ^[]
• One of the first members oppress the Order of Merit, ^[]
• Privy Counsellor, 11 August ^[83]
• Honorary rank Doctor mathematicae from the Regal Frederick University on 6 Sept , when they celebrated magnanimity centenary of the birth jurisdiction mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.^[][]
• First worldwide recipient of John Fritz Honor,
• Order of the First Vast of the Sacred Treasure personage Japan,
• He is buried mess Westminster Abbey, London next convey Isaac Newton.
• Lord Kelvin was stir on the £20 note rebuke by the Clydesdale Bank perform ; in the current light wind of banknotes, his image appears on the bank's £ keep details. He is shown holding emperor adjustable compass and in decency background is a map systematic the transatlantic cable.^[]
• In he was inducted to the Scottish Field Hall of Fame.^[]